Problem-Based Learning

AKA

Problem-Based Instruction

Focus

Supporting learning through co-dependent, goal-oriented action among adult learners

Principal Metaphors

  • Knowledge is … scope of possible actions and interpretations
  • Knowing is … doing
  • Learner is … a collaborator (individual) and a problem-solving team (collective)
  • Learning is … developing understanding while application and exploration
  • Teaching is … supervising, facilitating, guiding

Originated

1960s

Synopsis

A type of Active Learning or Inquiry-Based Learning, Problem-Based Learning is a small-group-based classroom approach that is structured around open-ended problems. The orienting goal is not a defined solution, but by the development of knowledge, communication skills, and collaborative competencies. That is, learning is seen to happen at both individual and group levels. While not limited to adult-education settings, it is was developed in and is most often encountered in professional schools. As might be expected, Problem-Based Learning is commonly associated with:
  • Problem Solving – a phrase that is used to label many different emphases and practices within discussions of learning and teaching. Most commonly, Problem Solving refers to engagement with non-routine exercises, which is seen to support Deep Learning (see Deep vs. Surface Learning) through contextualizing subject matter while requiring learners to think divergently. Opinions vary dramatically over what constitutes good teaching practice around Problem Solving, but empirical evidence points toward precision (and/or opportunities to seek clarity), nuanced scaffolding, instruction in decomposing complicated scenarios, tight linkages to current study, personal relevance, and social supports.
  • Problem-Solving Strategies – a frequent focus in Problem-Based Learning, comprising discrete approaches to grapple with problems. Specific Problem-Solving Strategies include:
    • Algorithm – a well-defined sequence of steps that can be used to generate a solution to a specific type of question (contrast: Heuristic)
    • Brainstorming – a (usually group-based) Problem-Solving Strategy that begins with generating possible solutions to a problem without judgment, after which it proceeds by weaning, testing, and honing suggestions
    • Generate-and-Test (Guess-and-Test) – a Problem-Solving Strategy that revolves around proposing plausible solutions and then trying them out
    • Heuristic (Cognitive Heuristic) – an experience-based strategy for tackling a problem that typically leads to a solution, often with efficiency (contrast: Algorithm)
    • Means–Ends Analysis – a Problem-Solving Strategy that begins by identifying differences between current conditions and desired ends, and then unfolds as an iterative process of reduces those differences
    • Productive Thinking – holistic and patient pondering on a problem that often enables sudden insight
    • Working Backward – a Problem-Solving Strategy that revolves around parsing the ultimate goal into attainable subgoals
    • Working Forward (Hill Climbing) – a Problem-Solving Strategy that involves iterative steps, each aimed in the general direction of the ultimate goal, and after each of which one takes stock and makes necessary adjustments
  • Problem Space – a term intended to capture the many aspects of engaging with problems, including both those associated with the process (e.g., defining the problem, or checking solutions) and the situational supports made available. Associated constructs include:
    • Joint Problem Space (Jeremy Roschelle, Stephanie Danell Teasley, 1990s) – an elaboration of Problem Space for collaborative contexts, taking into account such aspects as social relations, disciplinary content, and temporality
There are ranges of perspectives on what constitutes a good problem and how Problem-Solving Strategies emerge, and each has implications for Problem-Based Learning. Examples include:
  • Adaptive Strategy Choice Model (Strategy Choice Model) (Robert Siegler, 1990s) – a theory that suggests that one has multiple problem-solving strategies that evolve over time, driven principally by competition for use with one another
  • Collaborative Problem Solving (Laurie Nelson, 1990s) – a set of methods and guidelines aimed at the simultaneous development of sophisticated disciplinary knowledge, problem solving skills, critical thinking skills, and collaboration skills.
  • Fermi Problem (Fermi Estimate; Fermi Question; Fermi Quiz; Order Estimation; Order-of-Magnitude Estimate, Order-of-Magnitude Problem) (Enrico Fermi, 1930s) – a type of well-defined question that requires one to consider the broad contours of a complex situation and identify appropriate orders of magnitude (vs. accuracy of measurements) for multiple variables with little or no data. (A classic example is “How many piano tuners are there in Chicago?)
  • Stage Theory of Strategy Development – an umbrella category that collects perspectives on problem-solving strategies that assume such strategies develop incrementally, with more efficient and effective strategies routinely replacing less useful ones
  • Worked Examples (Example-Based Learning) (J. Sweller, 1980s) – a mode of teaching that involves the modeling of both formulation and solution of problems, typically more aimed at introducing or developing key disciplinary principles than at promoting procedural competence

Commentary

Problem-Based Learning was first developed in medical schools, where instructors could assume highly motivated students, intent on profound understandings and refined skill sets – and where competencies in accessing and keeping abreast with emerging insights are as important as solid groundings in established knowledge. Problem-Based Learning would thus seem very well fitted to some professions, but caution should be taken when seeking to generalize to other groups and subject matters. Even in ideal settings, commonly noted issues include time demands, unclear expectations, inadequate scaffolding, and limitations due to instructor knowledge.

Authors and/or Prominent Influences

John Dewey

Status as a Theory of Learning

Problem-Based Learning is not a theory of learning.

Status as a Theory of Teaching

Problem-Based Learning is a theory of teaching that has proven effective in some professional schools.

Status as a Scientific Theory

Problem-Based Learning is founded on scientific theories of learning. Proponents claim a significant body of evidence supporting claims that the approach, properly executed, is associated with higher achievement, more connected understandings, and improved attitudes.

Subdiscourses:

  • Adaptive Strategy Choice Model (Strategy Choice Model)
  • Algorithm
  • Brainstorming
  • Collaborative Problem Solving
  • Generate-and-Test (Guess-and-Test)
  • Fermi Problem (Fermi Estimate; Fermi Question; Fermi Quiz; Order Estimation; Order-of-Magnitude Estimate, Order-of-Magnitude Problem)
  • Heuristic (Cognitive Heuristic; Heuristic Technique)
  • Joint Problem Space
  • Means–Ends Analysis
  • Problem Solving
  • Problem Space
  • Problem-Solving Strategies
  • Productive Thinking
  • Stage Theory of Strategy Development
  • Worked Examples (Example-Based Learning)
  • Working Backward
  • Working Forward (Hill Climbing)

Map Location



Please cite this article as:
Davis, B., & Francis, K. (2022). “Problem-Based Learning” in Discourses on Learning in Education. https://learningdiscourses.com.


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