Drives, Needs, & Desires Theories

Focus

Principal Metaphors

• Knowledge is … a goal
• Knowing is … goal-attaining action
• Learner is … a seeker, striver (individual)
• Learning is … journeying, arriving at, reaching, progressing, accomplishing, achieving
• Teaching is … leading, guiding, directing, facilitating

Originated

Synopsis

• Drive – a bodily tension that serves as a motivator. Most Drives are associated with either overcoming a deficiency (i.e., a Need, see below) or diminishing a negative experience. Types of Drive include:
  • Primary Drive – an innate Drive – that is, one rooted in the agent’s biology (e.g., avoidance of pain)
  • Secondary Drive (Acquired Drive) – a learned Drive – that is, one that is associated with or generalized from a Primary Drive (e.g., fear of bees, associated with stings, and thus based on an avoidance of pain)
• Drive Theory (Drive Doctrine; Theory of Drives) – any perspective focused on defining or analyzing Drives.
• Exploratory Drive – the label attached to whatever is motivating an agent to engage in Exploratory Behavior. Associated constructs include:
  • Exploratory Behavior ­– activities that may resemble Play (see Play-Based Learning) or Curiosity (see Motivation Theories) and that do not appear to be a matter of any basic drives or needs
  • Diversive Exploration  – those Exploratory Behaviors oriented toward novel and/or exciting experiences
  • Inspective Exploration – those Exploratory Behaviors oriented toward minimizing negative emotions (e.g., fear, anxiety)
• Need – a state of deficiency
  • Felt Need – a conscious awareness of a physiological or emotional need
  • Need Reduction (Need Gratification) – the decrease of a need, usually by addressing the deficiency behind the need

• Hedonic Motivation (Hedonism) (commonly attribute to ancient Greeks) – a formalization of the commonsense realization that one moves toward something associated with pleasure and away from something threatening
• Instinct Theory (Instinct Theory of Motivation) (Wilhelm Wundt, late 1800s) – the perspective that one’s motivations are rooted in one’s biological and/or genetic structures. Instinct Theory asserts that some motivations, such as the drive to survive, are universal.
• Behaviorisms (Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, Edward Thorndike, late 1800s) – a suite of theories focused on associations between identifiable environmental stimuli and observable measurable behaviors
• Approach–Avoidance (Approach and Avoidance Motivation) (William James, 1890s) – a conflict or tension that arises when one is simultaneously drawn to and repelled by a particular goal or stimulus, because that object or situation has both positive and negative aspects
• Psychoanalytic Theories (Sigmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung, Harry Stack Sullivan, Jacques Lacan, and many others, 1890s) – a suite of theories focused on actions and interpretations that are not consciously mediated. Prominent constructs include:
  • Unconscious Motivation (Sigmund Freud, 1910s) – a core construct among Psychoanalytic Theories, which typically view drives, needs, and desires as mainly nonconscious. As well, among these theories, clues to Unconscious Motivationare believed to be manifest in ways that include:
    • Conscious Formation – a repressed desire that one comes to express in form that modifies, disguises, and/or conceals its origin and nature, even from oneself
    • Nonverbal Leakage – body language that is thought to reveal details about either one’s Unconscious Motivation or about conscious motivations that one is attempting to conceal
    • Parapraxis (Freudian Slip; Parapraxia) – a mistake that is seen as an expression of unconscious drives, needs, or desires. Specific examples include:
    • Symptomatic Act (Symbolic Action) – a deliberate act that is ostensibly for one purpose, but that under scrutiny reveals hidden (and, often, unconscious) intentions or meanings
    • Verbal Leakage – speech acts (e.g., slips of the tongue, self-contradictions) that are thought to reveal details about either one’s Unconscious Motivation or about conscious motivations that one is attempting to conceal
• Goal-Directed Behavior (Wallace Craig, 1910s) – activity that is oriented toward and motivated by ensuring a specific outcome. Subconstructs include:
  • Appetitive Behavior (Wallace Craig, 1910s) – those aspects of Goal-Directed Behavior that precede the actual attainment of the goal. Appetitive Behavior is highly flexible and can be greatly influenced by learning.
  • Consummatory Behavior (Consummatory Act) (Wallace Craig, 1910s) – the culminating act of Goal-Directed Behavior, in which one partakes of the object of that activity
• Drive-Reduction Theory (originally: Drive–Stimulus-Reduction Theory) (Clark Hull, 1940s) – a formalization of the commonplace observation that people are motivated by biological drives (e.g., hunger) that become more intense if left unsatisfied
• Fulfillment Model – an umbrella notion that collects those Motivation Theories that position self-fulfillment as the primary consideration in human action
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow, 1940s) – a ranking of five categories of need (physiological, safety, love/belonging, self-esteem, self-actualization), asserting agents are motivated to meet more basic levels before higher-levels are addressed
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Leon Festinger, 1950s) – a theory focusing on motivations triggered by desires to resolve inconsistent or incompatible thoughts/beliefs/claims
• Drive-Induction Theory (Consummatory Response Theory of Reinforcement) (Frederick Sheffield, 1950s) – an alternative to Drive-Reduction Theory (see above), the suggestion that it is not the reduction in biological drive states (e.g., hunger) that motivates people, but the arousal associated with engaging in the activity associated with that drive (e.g., eating)
• Murray’s Theory of Psychogenic Needs (Murray’s Need Theory) (Henry Alexander Murray, 1950s) – understanding “personality in terms of available possibilities for effective action, this theory is a perspective on personality that focuses on three influences that all operate mainly unconsciously: Motives, Presses, and Needs (which are subdivided into Primary Needs, which are based on biological necessities, and Secondary Needs, which are generally psychological). Associated needs with specific relevance to education include;
  • Need for Achievement (n-Ach) (Henry Alexander Murray, 1950s) – the compelling desire to high standards of performance, which is often associated with a Fixed Mindset (see Mindset). Associated constructs include:
    • High Need for Achievement (High nAch; High N-Achiever) – motivated by desires for significant accomplishment and recognition– and, typically, oriented by a hope of success, undaunted by difficulty, and capable of prolonged, intense engagements
    • Low Need for Achievement (Low nAch; Low N-Achiever) – a trait associated with the avoidance of responsibility and, often, a fear of failure
• Need for Competence (Robert White, 1950s) ­– one’s self-assurance of being able to deal effectively with one’s situation
• Social Influence:
  • Informational Influence (Informational Social Influence) (Morton Deutsch, 1950s) – the need to be right – that is, those psychological and social processes that prompt one to question that appropriateness of one’s feelings, thoughts, and/or actions
  • Normative Influence (Normative Social Influence) (Morton Deutsch, 1950s) – the need to be liked – that is, those psychological and social processes that prompt one to feel, think, and/or act in ways that are consistent with the norms of the situation
• ERG Theory (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth Theory) (Clayton P. Alderfer, 1960s) – a ranking of three groups of core needs (existence, relatedness, growth), in which motivation unmet needs at a higher level will motivate amplified efforts to meet lower level needs.
• McLelland’s Needs Theory (McLelland’s Human Motivation Theory; Need Theory; Three-Needs Theory) (David McClelland, 1960s) ­– the hypothesis that every human has three basic types of motivation – namely, the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power. The manner in which these needs interact is different for each individual, as influenced by personal experience and cultural values:
  • Need for Achievement (n-Ach) (Henry Alexander Murray, 1950s) – the compelling desire to high standards of performance
  • Need for Affiliation (n-Aff; nAff) (David McClelland, 1960s) ­– an element of motivation that is oriented by the desire for social acceptance
  • Need for Power (n-Pow; nPow) (David McClelland, 1960s) ­– an element of motivation that is oriented by the desire for influence (and, in the extreme, control) circumstances and others
• Need for Approval (David Marlowe, 1960s) ­– an impulse to be noticed/recognized by and to “look good” to others
• Need–Press Theory (Henry Alexander Murray, 1960s) – a perspective on personal motivation in terms of the combined influence of need (a state of deficiency) and press (a stimulus that arouses a need)
• Optimal Stimulation Theory (Optimal Arousal Theory; Optimal Stimulation Principle) (Daniel Berlyne, 1960s) – the suggestion that organisms are motivated to learn those behaviors that lead to a desired level of stimulations
• Reactance Theory (J.W. Brehm, 1960s) – Understanding “reactance” to refer to negative responses to events, circumstances, and persons that might diminish (or threaten to diminish) one’s liberties, Reactance Theory looks at how negative responses orient and activate one’s motivations and interests. Types of reactance include:
  •  Ironic Mental Control (Ironic Monitoring Process) (Daniel Wegner, 1990s) – the phenomenon of increasing unwanted thoughts by attempting to suppress them
  • Reversal Theory (K.C.P. Smith, M.J. Apter, 1970s) – an emotion-focused theory of motivation based on the observation that people tend to associate positive emotions with things that are going well and negative emotions with things that are disappointing
  • Reverse Psychology – a strategy to manipulate another’s attitudes and motivations by asserting the opposite of their desires or beliefs, with the hope that person will move toward the opposite of what is asserted (i.e., toward what is, in fact, desired)
  • Streisand Effect (2000s) – the phenomenon of inadvertently amplifying interest and attention in a piece of information by attempting to conceal, block, or delete that information
• Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (Jeffrey Alan Gray, 1970s) – a model that explains personal motivation in terms of the interactions of three independent biological systems:
  • Behavioral Approach System (Jeffrey Alan Gray, 1970s) – a physiological system that is asserted to be sensitive to rewards and to the avoidance of punishment, and that thus influences goal-oriented behaviors associated with positive outcomes
  • Behavioral Inhibition System (Jeffrey Alan Gray, 1970s) – a physiological system that is asserted to be sensitive to potential negative experiences, and thus that suppresses behaviors might trigger such outcomes
  • Fight–Flight–Freeze System (Jeffrey Alan Gray, 1970s) – a physiological system that responds to unfamiliar and undesired stimuli: Fight (respond aggressively – e.g., in a classroom context, be defiant or disruptive); Flight (run away – e.g., in a classroom context, engage in task-avoidance behaviors); Freeze (be still or become immobilized – e.g., in a classroom context, be unable to focus). Several additions to this triad have been proposed, but those suggestions typically involve processes and capacities well beyond the physiological – such as:
    • Fawn – a trauma response focused on trying to appease the threat
    • Flop – a trauma response involving disengagement (of attention, emotion, participation, etc.)
    • Friend – a trauma response revolving around pleas for assistance and reliance on others
• Reward Theories (various, 1970s) – an umbrella category that includes those perspectives that focus on the role of rewards in influencing learning, decision-making, and behavior. Most Reward Theories pay particular attention to brain-based processes associated with rewards. Reward Theories span many applications, with most focused on social-relational matters. Subdiscourses include:
  • Mutual Reward Theory – the suggestion that a relationship is likely to grow stronger when the benefits of that association are perceived to be fairly distributed between the individuals
  • Positive Reward Theory – the suggestion that addictive behavior is anchored to the perception that the object of addiction brings pleasant and gratifying effects
  • Reward Theory of Attraction (Pawel Lewicki, 1980s) – the suggestion that one is attracted to those perceived to offer or enable pleasant, gratifying, fulfilling, or otherwise positive experiences
• Self-Determination Theory (Edward L. Deci, Richard Ryan, 1970s) – how three psychological needs (competence, autonomy, relatedness) motivate action and define personality
• Self-Worth Theory (Martin Covington, 1970s) – a theory of motivation founded on the assumption that one’s highest priority is self-acceptance – which, because achievement and worth are often conflated, is often indexed to competitiveness
• Uses and Gratification Theory (Elihu Katz, Jay. G. Blumer, Michael Gurevitch, 1970s) – a framework for making sense of how and why people seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs. Associated constructs include:
  • Delayed Gratification (Deferred Gratification) (Walter Mischel, 1960s) – the ability to resist the temptation for an immediate reward, often with the hope or expectation of a more significant reward in the longer term. Delayed Gratification has been empirically linked to academic success, well-being, and sociality.
  • Dopamine Detox (Dopamine Fasting) – taking a break (of hours to days) from activities that provide instant gratification – i.e., those activities that are popularly associated with “dopamine hits.” The goal is to reduce the frequent and artificial spikes in Dopamine (under Neuro-Focused Discourses) that can lead to cravings, distraction, and a lack of motivation for more productive tasks.
  • Digital Detox – a type of Dopamine Detox that refers specifically to taking a break from using digital devices (especially for accessing social media) with the intention of reducing stress, improving in-person relationships, and diversifying physical activities
• Energization Theory (Motivational Intentional Theory) (Jack Brehm, 1980s) – the proposal that one’s perceptions of the value and attainability of a goal is related to the efforts one is willing to expend to reach that goal
• Hedonic Psychology (Daniel Kahneman, 1990s) – a perspective concerned with the pleasure–pain continuum across physiological, psychological, and social aspects, attending specifically to implications for motivation
• 16 Basic Desires Theory (Steven Reiss, 1990s) – desires that motivate actions and define personalities (acceptance, curiosity, eating, family, honor, idealism, independence, order, physical activity, power, romance, saving, social contact, social status, tranquility, vengeance)
• Situated Motivation (Scott Paris, 1990s) – the suggestion that one’s motivation is largely a function of one’s context
• Tend and Befriend Theory (Shelley Taylor, 1990s) – the suggestion that members of some species manage threats by protecting offspring (“tending”) and being social for mutual defence (befriending). Tend and Befriend Theory was initially articulated as one alternative to Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (see above).

Commentary

Authors and/or Prominent Influences

Status as a Theory of Learning

Status as a Theory of Teaching

Status as a Scientific Theory

Subdiscourses:

• Appetitive Behavior
• Approach–Avoidance (Approach and Avoidance Motivation)
• Behavioral Approach System
• Behavioral Inhibition System
• Behaviorisms
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory
• Conscious Formation
• Consummatory Behavior (Consummatory Act)
• Delayed Gratification (Deferred Gratification)
• Digital Detox
• Dopamine Detox (Dopamine Fasting)
• Drive
• Drive Theory (Drive Doctrine; Theory of Drives)
• Drive-Induction Theory (Consummatory Response Theory of Reinforcement)
• Drive-Reduction Theory (Drive–Stimulus-Reduction Theory)
• Energization Theory (Motivational Intentional Theory)
• ERG Theory (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth Theory)
• Fawn
• Felt Need
• Fight–Flight–Freeze System
• Flop
• Friend
• Fulfillment Model
• Goal-Directed Behavior
• Hedonic Motivation (Hedonism)
• Hedonic Psychology
• High Need for Achievement (High nAch; High N-Achiever)
• Informational Influence (Informational Social Influence)
• Instinct Theory (Instinct Theory of Motivation)
• Ironic Mental Control (Ironic Monitoring Process)
• Low Need for Achievement (Low nAch; Low N-Achiever)
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• McLelland’s Needs Theory (McLelland’s Human Motivation Theory; Need Theory; Three-Needs Theory)
• Murray’s Theory of Psychogenic Needs (Murray’s Need Theory)
• Mutual Reward Theory
• Need
• Need for Achievement (n-Ach)
• Need for Affiliation (n-Aff; nAff)
• Need for Approval
• Need for Competence
• Need for Power (n-Pow; nPow)
• Need Reduction (Need Gratification)
• Need–Press Theory
• Nonverbal Leakage
• Normative Influence (Normative Social Influence)
• Optimal Stimulation Theory (Optimal Arousal Theory; Optimal Stimulation Principle)
• Parapraxis (Freudian Slip; Parapraxia)
• Positive Reward Theory
• Primary Drive
• Psychoanalytic Theories
• Reactance Theory
• Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory
• Reversal Theory
• Reverse Psychology
• Reward Theories
• Reward Theory of Attraction
• Secondary Drive (Acquired Drive)
• Self-Determination Theory
• Self-Worth Theory
• Situated Motivation
• 16 Basic Desires Theory
• Streisand Effect
• Symptomatic Act (Symbolic Action)
• Tend and Befriend Theory
• Three Needs Theory
• Unconscious Motivation
• Uses and Gratifications Theory
• Verbal Leakage

Map Location

Please cite this article as:
Davis, B., & Francis, K. (2024). “Drives, Needs, & Desires Theories” in Discourses on Learning in Education. https://learningdiscourses.com.